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Pass through StackMachine, to incorporate new coqdoc features
author Adam Chlipala <adam@chlipala.net>
date Wed, 25 Jul 2012 15:51:54 -0400
parents c898e72b84a3
children 10a6b5414551
rev   line source
adam@394 1 (* Copyright (c) 2008-2012, Adam Chlipala
adamc@45 2 *
adamc@45 3 * This work is licensed under a
adamc@45 4 * Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 3.0
adamc@45 5 * Unported License.
adamc@45 6 * The license text is available at:
adamc@45 7 * http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/
adamc@45 8 *)
adamc@45 9
adamc@45 10 (* begin hide *)
adamc@45 11 Require Import List.
adamc@45 12
adam@314 13 Require Import CpdtTactics.
adamc@45 14
adamc@45 15 Set Implicit Arguments.
adam@322 16
adam@322 17 (* Extra definitions to get coqdoc to choose the right fonts. *)
adam@322 18
adam@323 19 (* begin thide *)
adam@322 20 Inductive unit := tt.
adam@322 21 Inductive Empty_set := .
adam@322 22 Inductive bool := true | false.
adam@322 23 Inductive sum := .
adam@322 24 Inductive prod := .
adam@322 25 Inductive and := conj.
adam@322 26 Inductive or := or_introl | or_intror.
adam@322 27 Inductive ex := ex_intro.
adam@322 28 Inductive eq := refl_equal.
adam@322 29 Reset unit.
adam@323 30 (* end thide *)
adamc@45 31 (* end hide *)
adamc@45 32
adamc@45 33 (** %\chapter{Inductive Predicates}% *)
adamc@45 34
adam@322 35 (** The so-called %\index{Curry-Howard correspondence}``%#"#Curry-Howard correspondence#"#%''~\cite{Curry,Howard}% states a formal connection between functional programs and mathematical proofs. In the last chapter, we snuck in a first introduction to this subject in Coq. Witness the close similarity between the types [unit] and [True] from the standard library: *)
adamc@45 36
adamc@45 37 Print unit.
adam@322 38 (** [[
adamc@209 39 Inductive unit : Set := tt : unit
adam@302 40 ]]
adam@302 41 *)
adamc@45 42
adamc@45 43 Print True.
adam@322 44 (** [[
adamc@209 45 Inductive True : Prop := I : True
adam@322 46 ]]
adam@302 47 *)
adamc@45 48
adam@350 49 (** Recall that [unit] is the type with only one value, and [True] is the proposition that always holds. Despite this superficial difference between the two concepts, in both cases we can use the same inductive definition mechanism. The connection goes further than this. We see that we arrive at the definition of [True] by replacing [unit] by [True], [tt] by [I], and [Set] by [Prop]. The first two of these differences are superficial changes of names, while the third difference is the crucial one for separating programs from proofs. A term [T] of type [Set] is a type of programs, and a term of type [T] is a program. A term [T] of type [Prop] is a logical proposition, and its proofs are of type [T]. Chapter 12 goes into more detail about the theoretical differences between [Prop] and [Set]. For now, we will simply follow common intuitions about what a proof is.
adamc@45 50
adam@398 51 The type [unit] has one value, [tt]. The type [True] has one proof, [I]. Why distinguish between these two types? Many people who have read about Curry-Howard in an abstract context and not put it to use in proof engineering answer that the two types in fact _should not_ be distinguished. There is a certain aesthetic appeal to this point of view, but I want to argue that it is best to treat Curry-Howard very loosely in practical proving. There are Coq-specific reasons for preferring the distinction, involving efficient compilation and avoidance of paradoxes in the presence of classical math, but I will argue that there is a more general principle that should lead us to avoid conflating programming and proving.
adamc@45 52
adam@401 53 The essence of the argument is roughly this: to an engineer, not all functions of type [A -> B] are created equal, but all proofs of a proposition [P -> Q] are. This idea is known as%\index{proof irrelevance}% _proof irrelevance_, and its formalizations in logics prevent us from distinguishing between alternate proofs of the same proposition. Proof irrelevance is compatible with, but not derivable in, Gallina. Apart from this theoretical concern, I will argue that it is most effective to do engineering with Coq by employing different techniques for programs versus proofs. Most of this book is organized around that distinction, describing how to program, by applying standard functional programming techniques in the presence of dependent types; and how to prove, by writing custom Ltac decision procedures.
adamc@45 54
adam@399 55 With that perspective in mind, this chapter is sort of a mirror image of the last chapter, introducing how to define predicates with inductive definitions. We will point out similarities in places, but much of the effective Coq user's bag of tricks is disjoint for predicates versus %``%#"#datatypes.#"#%''% This chapter is also a covert introduction to dependent types, which are the foundation on which interesting inductive predicates are built, though we will rely on tactics to build dependently typed proof terms for us for now. A future chapter introduces more manual application of dependent types. *)
adamc@45 56
adamc@45 57
adamc@48 58 (** * Propositional Logic *)
adamc@45 59
adamc@45 60 (** Let us begin with a brief tour through the definitions of the connectives for propositional logic. We will work within a Coq section that provides us with a set of propositional variables. In Coq parlance, these are just terms of type [Prop.] *)
adamc@45 61
adamc@45 62 Section Propositional.
adamc@46 63 Variables P Q R : Prop.
adamc@45 64
adamc@45 65 (** In Coq, the most basic propositional connective is implication, written [->], which we have already used in almost every proof. Rather than being defined inductively, implication is built into Coq as the function type constructor.
adamc@45 66
adamc@45 67 We have also already seen the definition of [True]. For a demonstration of a lower-level way of establishing proofs of inductive predicates, we turn to this trivial theorem. *)
adamc@45 68
adamc@45 69 Theorem obvious : True.
adamc@55 70 (* begin thide *)
adamc@45 71 apply I.
adamc@55 72 (* end thide *)
adamc@45 73 Qed.
adamc@45 74
adam@401 75 (** We may always use the [apply] tactic to take a proof step based on applying a particular constructor of the inductive predicate that we are trying to establish. Sometimes there is only one constructor that could possibly apply, in which case a shortcut is available:%\index{tactics!constructor}% *)
adamc@45 76
adamc@55 77 (* begin thide *)
adamc@45 78 Theorem obvious' : True.
adamc@45 79 constructor.
adamc@45 80 Qed.
adamc@45 81
adamc@55 82 (* end thide *)
adamc@55 83
adamc@45 84 (** There is also a predicate [False], which is the Curry-Howard mirror image of [Empty_set] from the last chapter. *)
adamc@45 85
adamc@45 86 Print False.
adam@322 87 (** [[
adamc@209 88 Inductive False : Prop :=
adamc@209 89
adamc@209 90 ]]
adamc@45 91
adamc@209 92 We can conclude anything from [False], doing case analysis on a proof of [False] in the same way we might do case analysis on, say, a natural number. Since there are no cases to consider, any such case analysis succeeds immediately in proving the goal. *)
adamc@45 93
adamc@45 94 Theorem False_imp : False -> 2 + 2 = 5.
adamc@55 95 (* begin thide *)
adamc@45 96 destruct 1.
adamc@55 97 (* end thide *)
adamc@45 98 Qed.
adamc@45 99
adamc@45 100 (** In a consistent context, we can never build a proof of [False]. In inconsistent contexts that appear in the courses of proofs, it is usually easiest to proceed by demonstrating that inconsistency with an explicit proof of [False]. *)
adamc@45 101
adamc@45 102 Theorem arith_neq : 2 + 2 = 5 -> 9 + 9 = 835.
adamc@55 103 (* begin thide *)
adamc@45 104 intro.
adamc@45 105
adam@322 106 (** At this point, we have an inconsistent hypothesis [2 + 2 = 5], so the specific conclusion is not important. We use the %\index{tactics!elimtype}%[elimtype] tactic to state a proposition, telling Coq that we wish to construct a proof of the new proposition and then prove the original goal by case analysis on the structure of the new auxiliary proof. Since [False] has no constructors, [elimtype False] simply leaves us with the obligation to prove [False]. *)
adamc@45 107
adamc@45 108 elimtype False.
adamc@45 109 (** [[
adamc@45 110 H : 2 + 2 = 5
adamc@45 111 ============================
adamc@45 112 False
adamc@209 113
adamc@209 114 ]]
adamc@45 115
adamc@209 116 For now, we will leave the details of this proof about arithmetic to [crush]. *)
adamc@45 117
adamc@45 118 crush.
adamc@55 119 (* end thide *)
adamc@45 120 Qed.
adamc@45 121
adamc@45 122 (** A related notion to [False] is logical negation. *)
adamc@45 123
adamc@45 124 Print not.
adamc@209 125 (** %\vspace{-.15in}% [[
adamc@209 126 not = fun A : Prop => A -> False
adamc@209 127 : Prop -> Prop
adamc@209 128
adamc@209 129 ]]
adamc@45 130
adam@280 131 We see that [not] is just shorthand for implication of [False]. We can use that fact explicitly in proofs. The syntax [~ P] expands to [not P]. *)
adamc@45 132
adamc@45 133 Theorem arith_neq' : ~ (2 + 2 = 5).
adamc@55 134 (* begin thide *)
adamc@45 135 unfold not.
adamc@45 136 (** [[
adamc@45 137 ============================
adamc@45 138 2 + 2 = 5 -> False
adam@302 139 ]]
adam@302 140 *)
adamc@45 141
adamc@45 142 crush.
adamc@55 143 (* end thide *)
adamc@45 144 Qed.
adamc@45 145
adamc@45 146 (** We also have conjunction, which we introduced in the last chapter. *)
adamc@45 147
adamc@45 148 Print and.
adam@401 149 (** [[
adam@322 150 Inductive and (A : Prop) (B : Prop) : Prop := conj : A -> B -> A /\ B
adamc@209 151
adamc@209 152 ]]
adamc@209 153
adam@322 154 The interested reader can check that [and] has a Curry-Howard equivalent called %\index{Gallina terms!prod}%[prod], the type of pairs. However, it is generally most convenient to reason about conjunction using tactics. An explicit proof of commutativity of [and] illustrates the usual suspects for such tasks. The operator [/\] is an infix shorthand for [and]. *)
adamc@45 155
adamc@45 156 Theorem and_comm : P /\ Q -> Q /\ P.
adamc@209 157
adamc@55 158 (* begin thide *)
adamc@45 159 (** We start by case analysis on the proof of [P /\ Q]. *)
adamc@45 160
adamc@45 161 destruct 1.
adamc@45 162 (** [[
adamc@45 163 H : P
adamc@45 164 H0 : Q
adamc@45 165 ============================
adamc@45 166 Q /\ P
adamc@209 167
adamc@209 168 ]]
adamc@45 169
adam@322 170 Every proof of a conjunction provides proofs for both conjuncts, so we get a single subgoal reflecting that. We can proceed by splitting this subgoal into a case for each conjunct of [Q /\ P].%\index{tactics!split}% *)
adamc@45 171
adamc@45 172 split.
adam@322 173 (** %\vspace{.1in} \noindent 2 \coqdockw{subgoals}\vspace{-.1in}%#<tt>2 subgoals</tt>#
adam@322 174 [[
adamc@45 175
adamc@45 176 H : P
adamc@45 177 H0 : Q
adamc@45 178 ============================
adamc@45 179 Q
adam@322 180 ]]
adam@322 181 %\noindent \coqdockw{subgoal} 2 \coqdockw{is}:%#<tt>subgoal 2 is</tt>#
adam@322 182 [[
adam@322 183 P
adamc@209 184
adamc@209 185 ]]
adamc@45 186
adam@322 187 In each case, the conclusion is among our hypotheses, so the %\index{tactics!assumption}%[assumption] tactic finishes the process. *)
adamc@45 188
adamc@45 189 assumption.
adamc@45 190 assumption.
adamc@55 191 (* end thide *)
adamc@45 192 Qed.
adamc@45 193
adam@322 194 (** Coq disjunction is called %\index{Gallina terms!or}%[or] and abbreviated with the infix operator [\/]. *)
adamc@45 195
adamc@45 196 Print or.
adam@401 197 (** [[
adamc@209 198 Inductive or (A : Prop) (B : Prop) : Prop :=
adamc@209 199 or_introl : A -> A \/ B | or_intror : B -> A \/ B
adamc@209 200
adamc@209 201 ]]
adamc@45 202
adam@322 203 We see that there are two ways to prove a disjunction: prove the first disjunct or prove the second. The Curry-Howard analogue of this is the Coq %\index{Gallina terms!sum}%[sum] type. We can demonstrate the main tactics here with another proof of commutativity. *)
adamc@45 204
adamc@45 205 Theorem or_comm : P \/ Q -> Q \/ P.
adamc@55 206
adamc@55 207 (* begin thide *)
adamc@45 208 (** As in the proof for [and], we begin with case analysis, though this time we are met by two cases instead of one. *)
adamc@209 209
adamc@45 210 destruct 1.
adam@322 211 (** %\vspace{.1in} \noindent 2 \coqdockw{subgoals}\vspace{-.1in}%#<tt>2 subgoals</tt>#
adam@322 212 [[
adamc@45 213
adamc@45 214 H : P
adamc@45 215 ============================
adamc@45 216 Q \/ P
adam@322 217 ]]
adam@322 218 %\noindent \coqdockw{subgoal} 2 \coqdockw{is}:%#<tt>subgoal 2 is</tt>#
adam@322 219 [[
adamc@45 220 Q \/ P
adamc@209 221
adamc@209 222 ]]
adamc@45 223
adam@401 224 We can see that, in the first subgoal, we want to prove the disjunction by proving its second disjunct. The %\index{tactics!right}%[right] tactic telegraphs this intent. *)
adam@322 225
adamc@45 226 right; assumption.
adamc@45 227
adam@322 228 (** The second subgoal has a symmetric proof.%\index{tactics!left}%
adamc@45 229
adamc@45 230 [[
adamc@45 231 1 subgoal
adamc@45 232
adamc@45 233 H : Q
adamc@45 234 ============================
adamc@45 235 Q \/ P
adam@302 236 ]]
adam@302 237 *)
adamc@45 238
adamc@45 239 left; assumption.
adam@322 240
adamc@55 241 (* end thide *)
adamc@45 242 Qed.
adamc@45 243
adamc@46 244
adamc@46 245 (* begin hide *)
adamc@46 246 (* In-class exercises *)
adamc@46 247
adamc@46 248 Theorem contra : P -> ~P -> R.
adamc@52 249 (* begin thide *)
adamc@52 250 unfold not.
adamc@52 251 intros.
adamc@52 252 elimtype False.
adamc@52 253 apply H0.
adamc@52 254 assumption.
adamc@52 255 (* end thide *)
adamc@46 256 Admitted.
adamc@46 257
adamc@46 258 Theorem and_assoc : (P /\ Q) /\ R -> P /\ (Q /\ R).
adamc@52 259 (* begin thide *)
adamc@52 260 intros.
adamc@52 261 destruct H.
adamc@52 262 destruct H.
adamc@52 263 split.
adamc@52 264 assumption.
adamc@52 265 split.
adamc@52 266 assumption.
adamc@52 267 assumption.
adamc@52 268 (* end thide *)
adamc@46 269 Admitted.
adamc@46 270
adamc@46 271 Theorem or_assoc : (P \/ Q) \/ R -> P \/ (Q \/ R).
adamc@52 272 (* begin thide *)
adamc@52 273 intros.
adamc@52 274 destruct H.
adamc@52 275 destruct H.
adamc@52 276 left.
adamc@52 277 assumption.
adamc@52 278 right.
adamc@52 279 left.
adamc@52 280 assumption.
adamc@52 281 right.
adamc@52 282 right.
adamc@52 283 assumption.
adamc@52 284 (* end thide *)
adamc@46 285 Admitted.
adamc@46 286
adamc@46 287 (* end hide *)
adamc@46 288
adamc@46 289
adam@322 290 (** It would be a shame to have to plod manually through all proofs about propositional logic. Luckily, there is no need. One of the most basic Coq automation tactics is %\index{tactics!tauto}%[tauto], which is a complete decision procedure for constructive propositional logic. (More on what %``%#"#constructive#"#%''% means in the next section.) We can use [tauto] to dispatch all of the purely propositional theorems we have proved so far. *)
adamc@46 291
adamc@46 292 Theorem or_comm' : P \/ Q -> Q \/ P.
adamc@55 293 (* begin thide *)
adamc@46 294 tauto.
adamc@55 295 (* end thide *)
adamc@46 296 Qed.
adamc@46 297
adam@401 298 (** Sometimes propositional reasoning forms important plumbing for the proof of a theorem, but we still need to apply some other smarts about, say, arithmetic. The tactic %\index{tactics!intuition}%[intuition] is a generalization of [tauto] that proves everything it can using propositional reasoning. When some goals remain, it uses propositional laws to simplify them as far as possible. Consider this example, which uses the list concatenation operator [++] from the standard library. *)
adamc@46 299
adamc@46 300 Theorem arith_comm : forall ls1 ls2 : list nat,
adamc@46 301 length ls1 = length ls2 \/ length ls1 + length ls2 = 6
adamc@46 302 -> length (ls1 ++ ls2) = 6 \/ length ls1 = length ls2.
adamc@55 303 (* begin thide *)
adamc@46 304 intuition.
adamc@46 305
adamc@46 306 (** A lot of the proof structure has been generated for us by [intuition], but the final proof depends on a fact about lists. The remaining subgoal hints at what cleverness we need to inject. *)
adamc@46 307
adamc@46 308 (** [[
adamc@46 309 ls1 : list nat
adamc@46 310 ls2 : list nat
adamc@46 311 H0 : length ls1 + length ls2 = 6
adamc@46 312 ============================
adamc@46 313 length (ls1 ++ ls2) = 6 \/ length ls1 = length ls2
adamc@209 314
adamc@209 315 ]]
adamc@46 316
adamc@209 317 We can see that we need a theorem about lengths of concatenated lists, which we proved last chapter and is also in the standard library. *)
adamc@46 318
adamc@46 319 rewrite app_length.
adamc@46 320 (** [[
adamc@46 321 ls1 : list nat
adamc@46 322 ls2 : list nat
adamc@46 323 H0 : length ls1 + length ls2 = 6
adamc@46 324 ============================
adamc@46 325 length ls1 + length ls2 = 6 \/ length ls1 = length ls2
adamc@209 326
adamc@209 327 ]]
adamc@46 328
adamc@209 329 Now the subgoal follows by purely propositional reasoning. That is, we could replace [length ls1 + length ls2 = 6] with [P] and [length ls1 = length ls2] with [Q] and arrive at a tautology of propositional logic. *)
adamc@46 330
adamc@46 331 tauto.
adamc@55 332 (* end thide *)
adamc@46 333 Qed.
adamc@46 334
adam@322 335 (** The [intuition] tactic is one of the main bits of glue in the implementation of [crush], so, with a little help, we can get a short automated proof of the theorem. *)
adamc@46 336
adamc@55 337 (* begin thide *)
adamc@46 338 Theorem arith_comm' : forall ls1 ls2 : list nat,
adamc@46 339 length ls1 = length ls2 \/ length ls1 + length ls2 = 6
adamc@46 340 -> length (ls1 ++ ls2) = 6 \/ length ls1 = length ls2.
adam@375 341 Hint Rewrite app_length.
adamc@46 342
adamc@46 343 crush.
adamc@46 344 Qed.
adamc@55 345 (* end thide *)
adamc@46 346
adamc@45 347 End Propositional.
adamc@45 348
adam@322 349 (** Ending the section here has the same effect as always. Each of our propositional theorems becomes universally quantified over the propositional variables that we used. *)
adam@322 350
adamc@46 351
adamc@47 352 (** * What Does It Mean to Be Constructive? *)
adamc@46 353
adam@401 354 (** One potential point of confusion in the presentation so far is the distinction between [bool] and [Prop]. The datatype [bool] is built from two values [true] and [false], while [Prop] is a more primitive type that includes among its members [True] and [False]. Why not collapse these two concepts into one, and why must there be more than two states of mathematical truth?
adamc@46 355
adam@401 356 The answer comes from the fact that Coq implements%\index{constructive logic}% _constructive_ or%\index{intuitionistic logic|see{constructive logic}}% _intuitionistic_ logic, in contrast to the%\index{classical logic}% _classical_ logic that you may be more familiar with. In constructive logic, classical tautologies like [~ ~ P -> P] and [P \/ ~ P] do not always hold. In general, we can only prove these tautologies when [P] is%\index{decidability}% _decidable_, in the sense of %\index{computability|see{decidability}}%computability theory. The Curry-Howard encoding that Coq uses for [or] allows us to extract either a proof of [P] or a proof of [~ P] from any proof of [P \/ ~ P]. Since our proofs are just functional programs which we can run, a general %\index{law of the excluded middle}%law of the excluded middle would give us a decision procedure for the halting problem, where the instantiations of [P] would be formulas like %``%#"#this particular Turing machine halts.#"#%''%
adamc@47 357
adam@292 358 Hence the distinction between [bool] and [Prop]. Programs of type [bool] are computational by construction; we can always run them to determine their results. Many [Prop]s are undecidable, and so we can write more expressive formulas with [Prop]s than with [bool]s, but the inevitable consequence is that we cannot simply %``%#"#run a [Prop] to determine its truth.#"#%''%
adamc@47 359
adam@401 360 Constructive logic lets us define all of the logical connectives in an aesthetically appealing way, with orthogonal inductive definitions. That is, each connective is defined independently using a simple, shared mechanism. Constructivity also enables a trick called%\index{program extraction}% _program extraction_, where we write programs by phrasing them as theorems to be proved. Since our proofs are just functional programs, we can extract executable programs from our final proofs, which we could not do as naturally with classical proofs.
adamc@47 361
adamc@47 362 We will see more about Coq's program extraction facility in a later chapter. However, I think it is worth interjecting another warning at this point, following up on the prior warning about taking the Curry-Howard correspondence too literally. It is possible to write programs by theorem-proving methods in Coq, but hardly anyone does it. It is almost always most useful to maintain the distinction between programs and proofs. If you write a program by proving a theorem, you are likely to run into algorithmic inefficiencies that you introduced in your proof to make it easier to prove. It is a shame to have to worry about such situations while proving tricky theorems, and it is a happy state of affairs that you almost certainly will not need to, with the ideal of extracting programs from proofs being confined mostly to theoretical studies. *)
adamc@48 363
adamc@48 364
adamc@48 365 (** * First-Order Logic *)
adamc@48 366
adam@322 367 (** The %\index{Gallina terms!forall}%[forall] connective of first-order logic, which we have seen in many examples so far, is built into Coq. Getting ahead of ourselves a bit, we can see it as the dependent function type constructor. In fact, implication and universal quantification are just different syntactic shorthands for the same Coq mechanism. A formula [P -> Q] is equivalent to [forall x : P, Q], where [x] does not appear in [Q]. That is, the %``%#"#real#"#%''% type of the implication says %``%#"#for every proof of [P], there exists a proof of [Q].#"#%''%
adamc@48 368
adam@322 369 %\index{existential quantification}\index{Gallina terms!exists}\index{Gallina terms!ex}%Existential quantification is defined in the standard library. *)
adamc@48 370
adam@322 371 Print ex.
adam@401 372 (** [[
adamc@209 373 Inductive ex (A : Type) (P : A -> Prop) : Prop :=
adamc@209 374 ex_intro : forall x : A, P x -> ex P
adamc@209 375
adamc@209 376 ]]
adamc@48 377
adam@322 378 The family [ex] is parameterized by the type [A] that we quantify over, and by a predicate [P] over [A]s. We prove an existential by exhibiting some [x] of type [A], along with a proof of [P x]. As usual, there are tactics that save us from worrying about the low-level details most of the time. We use the equality operator [=], which, depending on the settings in which they learned logic, different people will say either is or is not part of first-order logic. For our purposes, it is. *)
adamc@48 379
adamc@48 380 Theorem exist1 : exists x : nat, x + 1 = 2.
adamc@55 381 (* begin thide *)
adamc@67 382 (** remove printing exists *)
adam@401 383 (** We can start this proof with a tactic %\index{tactics!exists}%[exists], which should not be confused with the formula constructor shorthand of the same name. (In the PDF version of this document, the reverse %`%#'#E#'#%'% appears instead of the text %``%#"#exists#"#%''% in formulas.) *)
adamc@209 384
adamc@48 385 exists 1.
adamc@48 386
adamc@209 387 (** The conclusion is replaced with a version using the existential witness that we announced.
adamc@48 388
adamc@209 389 [[
adamc@48 390 ============================
adamc@48 391 1 + 1 = 2
adam@302 392 ]]
adam@302 393 *)
adamc@48 394
adamc@48 395 reflexivity.
adamc@55 396 (* end thide *)
adamc@48 397 Qed.
adamc@48 398
adamc@48 399 (** printing exists $\exists$ *)
adamc@48 400
adamc@48 401 (** We can also use tactics to reason about existential hypotheses. *)
adamc@48 402
adamc@48 403 Theorem exist2 : forall n m : nat, (exists x : nat, n + x = m) -> n <= m.
adamc@55 404 (* begin thide *)
adamc@48 405 (** We start by case analysis on the proof of the existential fact. *)
adamc@209 406
adamc@48 407 destruct 1.
adamc@48 408 (** [[
adamc@48 409 n : nat
adamc@48 410 m : nat
adamc@48 411 x : nat
adamc@48 412 H : n + x = m
adamc@48 413 ============================
adamc@48 414 n <= m
adamc@209 415
adamc@209 416 ]]
adamc@48 417
adamc@209 418 The goal has been replaced by a form where there is a new free variable [x], and where we have a new hypothesis that the body of the existential holds with [x] substituted for the old bound variable. From here, the proof is just about arithmetic and is easy to automate. *)
adamc@48 419
adamc@48 420 crush.
adamc@55 421 (* end thide *)
adamc@48 422 Qed.
adamc@48 423
adamc@48 424
adamc@48 425 (* begin hide *)
adamc@48 426 (* In-class exercises *)
adamc@48 427
adamc@48 428 Theorem forall_exists_commute : forall (A B : Type) (P : A -> B -> Prop),
adamc@48 429 (exists x : A, forall y : B, P x y) -> (forall y : B, exists x : A, P x y).
adamc@52 430 (* begin thide *)
adamc@52 431 intros.
adamc@52 432 destruct H.
adamc@52 433 exists x.
adamc@52 434 apply H.
adamc@52 435 (* end thide *)
adamc@48 436 Admitted.
adamc@48 437
adamc@48 438 (* end hide *)
adamc@48 439
adamc@48 440
adam@322 441 (** The tactic [intuition] has a first-order cousin called %\index{tactics!firstorder}%[firstorder], which proves many formulas when only first-order reasoning is needed, and it tries to perform first-order simplifications in any case. First-order reasoning is much harder than propositional reasoning, so [firstorder] is much more likely than [intuition] to get stuck in a way that makes it run for long enough to be useless. *)
adamc@49 442
adamc@49 443
adamc@49 444 (** * Predicates with Implicit Equality *)
adamc@49 445
adamc@49 446 (** We start our exploration of a more complicated class of predicates with a simple example: an alternative way of characterizing when a natural number is zero. *)
adamc@49 447
adamc@49 448 Inductive isZero : nat -> Prop :=
adamc@49 449 | IsZero : isZero 0.
adamc@49 450
adamc@49 451 Theorem isZero_zero : isZero 0.
adamc@55 452 (* begin thide *)
adamc@49 453 constructor.
adamc@55 454 (* end thide *)
adamc@49 455 Qed.
adamc@49 456
adam@401 457 (** We can call [isZero] a%\index{judgment}% _judgment_, in the sense often used in the semantics of programming languages. Judgments are typically defined in the style of%\index{natural deduction}% _natural deduction_, where we write a number of%\index{inference rules}% _inference rules_ with premises appearing above a solid line and a conclusion appearing below the line. In this example, the sole constructor [IsZero] of [isZero] can be thought of as the single inference rule for deducing [isZero], with nothing above the line and [isZero 0] below it. The proof of [isZero_zero] demonstrates how we can apply an inference rule.
adamc@49 458
adam@398 459 The definition of [isZero] differs in an important way from all of the other inductive definitions that we have seen in this and the previous chapter. Instead of writing just [Set] or [Prop] after the colon, here we write [nat -> Prop]. We saw examples of parameterized types like [list], but there the parameters appeared with names _before_ the colon. Every constructor of a parameterized inductive type must have a range type that uses the same parameter, whereas the form we use here enables us to use different arguments to the type for different constructors.
adamc@49 460
adam@322 461 For instance, our definition [isZero] makes the predicate provable only when the argument is [0]. We can see that the concept of equality is somehow implicit in the inductive definition mechanism. The way this is accomplished is similar to the way that logic variables are used in %\index{Prolog}%Prolog, and it is a very powerful mechanism that forms a foundation for formalizing all of mathematics. In fact, though it is natural to think of inductive types as folding in the functionality of equality, in Coq, the true situation is reversed, with equality defined as just another inductive type!%\index{Gallina terms!eq}\index{Gallina terms!refl\_equal}% *)
adamc@49 462
adamc@49 463 Print eq.
adam@401 464 (** [[
adamc@209 465 Inductive eq (A : Type) (x : A) : A -> Prop := refl_equal : x = x
adamc@209 466
adamc@209 467 ]]
adamc@49 468
adam@398 469 Behind the scenes, uses of infix [=] are expanded to instances of [eq]. We see that [eq] has both a parameter [x] that is fixed and an extra unnamed argument of the same type. The type of [eq] allows us to state any equalities, even those that are provably false. However, examining the type of equality's sole constructor [refl_equal], we see that we can only _prove_ equality when its two arguments are syntactically equal. This definition turns out to capture all of the basic properties of equality, and the equality-manipulating tactics that we have seen so far, like [reflexivity] and [rewrite], are implemented treating [eq] as just another inductive type with a well-chosen definition. Another way of stating that definition is: equality is defined as the least reflexive relation.
adamc@49 470
adam@322 471 Returning to the example of [isZero], we can see how to work with hypotheses that use this predicate. *)
adamc@49 472
adamc@49 473 Theorem isZero_plus : forall n m : nat, isZero m -> n + m = n.
adamc@55 474 (* begin thide *)
adamc@49 475 (** We want to proceed by cases on the proof of the assumption about [isZero]. *)
adamc@209 476
adamc@49 477 destruct 1.
adamc@49 478 (** [[
adamc@49 479 n : nat
adamc@49 480 ============================
adamc@49 481 n + 0 = n
adamc@209 482
adamc@209 483 ]]
adamc@49 484
adamc@209 485 Since [isZero] has only one constructor, we are presented with only one subgoal. The argument [m] to [isZero] is replaced with that type's argument from the single constructor [IsZero]. From this point, the proof is trivial. *)
adamc@49 486
adamc@49 487 crush.
adamc@55 488 (* end thide *)
adamc@49 489 Qed.
adamc@49 490
adamc@49 491 (** Another example seems at first like it should admit an analogous proof, but in fact provides a demonstration of one of the most basic gotchas of Coq proving. *)
adamc@49 492
adamc@49 493 Theorem isZero_contra : isZero 1 -> False.
adamc@55 494 (* begin thide *)
adamc@49 495 (** Let us try a proof by cases on the assumption, as in the last proof. *)
adamc@209 496
adamc@49 497 destruct 1.
adamc@49 498 (** [[
adamc@49 499 ============================
adamc@49 500 False
adamc@209 501
adamc@209 502 ]]
adamc@49 503
adamc@209 504 It seems that case analysis has not helped us much at all! Our sole hypothesis disappears, leaving us, if anything, worse off than we were before. What went wrong? We have met an important restriction in tactics like [destruct] and [induction] when applied to types with arguments. If the arguments are not already free variables, they will be replaced by new free variables internally before doing the case analysis or induction. Since the argument [1] to [isZero] is replaced by a fresh variable, we lose the crucial fact that it is not equal to [0].
adamc@49 505
adam@322 506 Why does Coq use this restriction? We will discuss the issue in detail in a future chapter, when we see the dependently typed programming techniques that would allow us to write this proof term manually. For now, we just say that the algorithmic problem of %``%#"#logically complete case analysis#"#%''% is undecidable when phrased in Coq's logic. A few tactics and design patterns that we will present in this chapter suffice in almost all cases. For the current example, what we want is a tactic called %\index{tactics!inversion}%[inversion], which corresponds to the concept of inversion that is frequently used with natural deduction proof systems. *)
adamc@49 507
adamc@49 508 Undo.
adamc@49 509 inversion 1.
adamc@55 510 (* end thide *)
adamc@49 511 Qed.
adamc@49 512
adamc@49 513 (** What does [inversion] do? Think of it as a version of [destruct] that does its best to take advantage of the structure of arguments to inductive types. In this case, [inversion] completed the proof immediately, because it was able to detect that we were using [isZero] with an impossible argument.
adamc@49 514
adamc@49 515 Sometimes using [destruct] when you should have used [inversion] can lead to confusing results. To illustrate, consider an alternate proof attempt for the last theorem. *)
adamc@49 516
adamc@49 517 Theorem isZero_contra' : isZero 1 -> 2 + 2 = 5.
adamc@49 518 destruct 1.
adamc@49 519 (** [[
adamc@49 520 ============================
adamc@49 521 1 + 1 = 4
adamc@209 522
adamc@209 523 ]]
adamc@49 524
adam@280 525 What on earth happened here? Internally, [destruct] replaced [1] with a fresh variable, and, trying to be helpful, it also replaced the occurrence of [1] within the unary representation of each number in the goal. This has the net effect of decrementing each of these numbers. *)
adamc@209 526
adamc@49 527 Abort.
adamc@49 528
adam@280 529 (** To see more clearly what is happening, we can consider the type of [isZero]'s induction principle. *)
adam@280 530
adam@280 531 Check isZero_ind.
adam@280 532 (** %\vspace{-.15in}% [[
adam@280 533 isZero_ind
adam@280 534 : forall P : nat -> Prop, P 0 -> forall n : nat, isZero n -> P n
adam@280 535
adam@280 536 ]]
adam@280 537
adam@401 538 In our last proof script, [destruct] chose to instantiate [P] as [fun n => S n + S n = S (S (S (S n)))]. You can verify for yourself that this specialization of the principle applies to the goal and that the hypothesis [P 0] then matches the subgoal we saw generated. If you are doing a proof and encounter a strange transmutation like this, there is a good chance that you should go back and replace a use of [destruct] with [inversion]. *)
adam@280 539
adamc@49 540
adamc@49 541 (* begin hide *)
adamc@49 542 (* In-class exercises *)
adamc@49 543
adamc@49 544 (* EX: Define an inductive type capturing when a list has exactly two elements. Prove that your predicate does not hold of the empty list, and prove that, whenever it holds of a list, the length of that list is two. *)
adamc@49 545
adamc@52 546 (* begin thide *)
adamc@52 547 Section twoEls.
adamc@52 548 Variable A : Type.
adamc@52 549
adamc@52 550 Inductive twoEls : list A -> Prop :=
adamc@52 551 | TwoEls : forall x y, twoEls (x :: y :: nil).
adamc@52 552
adamc@52 553 Theorem twoEls_nil : twoEls nil -> False.
adamc@52 554 inversion 1.
adamc@52 555 Qed.
adamc@52 556
adamc@52 557 Theorem twoEls_two : forall ls, twoEls ls -> length ls = 2.
adamc@52 558 inversion 1.
adamc@52 559 reflexivity.
adamc@52 560 Qed.
adamc@52 561 End twoEls.
adamc@52 562 (* end thide *)
adamc@52 563
adamc@49 564 (* end hide *)
adamc@49 565
adamc@50 566
adamc@50 567 (** * Recursive Predicates *)
adamc@50 568
adamc@50 569 (** We have already seen all of the ingredients we need to build interesting recursive predicates, like this predicate capturing even-ness. *)
adamc@50 570
adamc@50 571 Inductive even : nat -> Prop :=
adamc@50 572 | EvenO : even O
adamc@50 573 | EvenSS : forall n, even n -> even (S (S n)).
adamc@50 574
adam@401 575 (** Think of [even] as another judgment defined by natural deduction rules. The rule [EvenO] has nothing above the line and [even O] below the line, and [EvenSS] is a rule with [even n] above the line and [even (S (S n))] below.
adamc@50 576
adamc@50 577 The proof techniques of the last section are easily adapted. *)
adamc@50 578
adamc@50 579 Theorem even_0 : even 0.
adamc@55 580 (* begin thide *)
adamc@50 581 constructor.
adamc@55 582 (* end thide *)
adamc@50 583 Qed.
adamc@50 584
adamc@50 585 Theorem even_4 : even 4.
adamc@55 586 (* begin thide *)
adamc@50 587 constructor; constructor; constructor.
adamc@55 588 (* end thide *)
adamc@50 589 Qed.
adamc@50 590
adam@375 591 (** It is not hard to see that sequences of constructor applications like the above can get tedious. We can avoid them using Coq's hint facility, with a new [Hint] variant that asks to consider all constructors of an inductive type during proof search. The tactic %\index{tactics!auto}%[auto] performs exhaustive proof search up to a fixed depth, considering only the proof steps we have registered as hints. *)
adamc@50 592
adamc@55 593 (* begin thide *)
adamc@50 594 Hint Constructors even.
adamc@50 595
adamc@50 596 Theorem even_4' : even 4.
adamc@50 597 auto.
adamc@50 598 Qed.
adamc@50 599
adamc@55 600 (* end thide *)
adamc@55 601
adam@322 602 (** We may also use [inversion] with [even]. *)
adam@322 603
adamc@50 604 Theorem even_1_contra : even 1 -> False.
adamc@55 605 (* begin thide *)
adamc@50 606 inversion 1.
adamc@55 607 (* end thide *)
adamc@50 608 Qed.
adamc@50 609
adamc@50 610 Theorem even_3_contra : even 3 -> False.
adamc@55 611 (* begin thide *)
adamc@50 612 inversion 1.
adamc@50 613 (** [[
adamc@50 614 H : even 3
adamc@50 615 n : nat
adamc@50 616 H1 : even 1
adamc@50 617 H0 : n = 1
adamc@50 618 ============================
adamc@50 619 False
adamc@209 620
adamc@209 621 ]]
adamc@50 622
adam@322 623 The [inversion] tactic can be a little overzealous at times, as we can see here with the introduction of the unused variable [n] and an equality hypothesis about it. For more complicated predicates, though, adding such assumptions is critical to dealing with the undecidability of general inversion. More complex inductive definitions and theorems can cause [inversion] to generate equalities where neither side is a variable. *)
adamc@50 624
adamc@50 625 inversion H1.
adamc@55 626 (* end thide *)
adamc@50 627 Qed.
adamc@50 628
adamc@50 629 (** We can also do inductive proofs about [even]. *)
adamc@50 630
adamc@50 631 Theorem even_plus : forall n m, even n -> even m -> even (n + m).
adamc@55 632 (* begin thide *)
adamc@50 633 (** It seems a reasonable first choice to proceed by induction on [n]. *)
adamc@209 634
adamc@50 635 induction n; crush.
adamc@50 636 (** [[
adamc@50 637 n : nat
adamc@50 638 IHn : forall m : nat, even n -> even m -> even (n + m)
adamc@50 639 m : nat
adamc@50 640 H : even (S n)
adamc@50 641 H0 : even m
adamc@50 642 ============================
adamc@50 643 even (S (n + m))
adamc@209 644
adamc@209 645 ]]
adamc@50 646
adamc@209 647 We will need to use the hypotheses [H] and [H0] somehow. The most natural choice is to invert [H]. *)
adamc@50 648
adamc@50 649 inversion H.
adamc@50 650 (** [[
adamc@50 651 n : nat
adamc@50 652 IHn : forall m : nat, even n -> even m -> even (n + m)
adamc@50 653 m : nat
adamc@50 654 H : even (S n)
adamc@50 655 H0 : even m
adamc@50 656 n0 : nat
adamc@50 657 H2 : even n0
adamc@50 658 H1 : S n0 = n
adamc@50 659 ============================
adamc@50 660 even (S (S n0 + m))
adamc@209 661
adamc@209 662 ]]
adamc@50 663
adamc@209 664 Simplifying the conclusion brings us to a point where we can apply a constructor. *)
adamc@209 665
adamc@50 666 simpl.
adamc@50 667 (** [[
adamc@50 668 ============================
adamc@50 669 even (S (S (n0 + m)))
adam@302 670 ]]
adam@302 671 *)
adamc@50 672
adamc@50 673 constructor.
adam@322 674
adam@401 675 (** [[
adamc@50 676 ============================
adamc@50 677 even (n0 + m)
adamc@209 678
adamc@209 679 ]]
adamc@50 680
adamc@209 681 At this point, we would like to apply the inductive hypothesis, which is:
adamc@209 682
adamc@209 683 [[
adamc@50 684 IHn : forall m : nat, even n -> even m -> even (n + m)
adamc@209 685 ]]
adamc@50 686
adam@401 687 Unfortunately, the goal mentions [n0] where it would need to mention [n] to match [IHn]. We could keep looking for a way to finish this proof from here, but it turns out that we can make our lives much easier by changing our basic strategy. Instead of inducting on the structure of [n], we should induct _on the structure of one of the [even] proofs_. This technique is commonly called%\index{rule induction}% _rule induction_ in programming language semantics. In the setting of Coq, we have already seen how predicates are defined using the same inductive type mechanism as datatypes, so the fundamental unity of rule induction with %``%#"#normal#"#%''% induction is apparent.
adamc@50 688
adam@322 689 Recall that tactics like [induction] and [destruct] may be passed numbers to refer to unnamed lefthand sides of implications in the conclusion, where the argument [n] refers to the [n]th such hypothesis. *)
adam@322 690
adamc@50 691 Restart.
adamc@50 692
adamc@50 693 induction 1.
adamc@50 694 (** [[
adamc@50 695 m : nat
adamc@50 696 ============================
adamc@50 697 even m -> even (0 + m)
adam@322 698 ]]
adamc@50 699
adam@322 700 %\noindent \coqdockw{subgoal} 2 \coqdockw{is}:%#<tt>subgoal 2 is</tt>#
adam@322 701 [[
adamc@50 702 even m -> even (S (S n) + m)
adamc@209 703
adamc@209 704 ]]
adamc@50 705
adamc@209 706 The first case is easily discharged by [crush], based on the hint we added earlier to try the constructors of [even]. *)
adamc@50 707
adamc@50 708 crush.
adamc@50 709
adamc@50 710 (** Now we focus on the second case: *)
adamc@209 711
adamc@50 712 intro.
adamc@50 713 (** [[
adamc@50 714 m : nat
adamc@50 715 n : nat
adamc@50 716 H : even n
adamc@50 717 IHeven : even m -> even (n + m)
adamc@50 718 H0 : even m
adamc@50 719 ============================
adamc@50 720 even (S (S n) + m)
adamc@209 721
adamc@209 722 ]]
adamc@50 723
adamc@209 724 We simplify and apply a constructor, as in our last proof attempt. *)
adamc@50 725
adamc@50 726 simpl; constructor.
adam@322 727
adam@401 728 (** [[
adamc@50 729 ============================
adamc@50 730 even (n + m)
adamc@209 731
adamc@209 732 ]]
adamc@50 733
adamc@209 734 Now we have an exact match with our inductive hypothesis, and the remainder of the proof is trivial. *)
adamc@50 735
adamc@50 736 apply IHeven; assumption.
adamc@50 737
adamc@50 738 (** In fact, [crush] can handle all of the details of the proof once we declare the induction strategy. *)
adamc@50 739
adamc@50 740 Restart.
adam@322 741
adamc@50 742 induction 1; crush.
adamc@55 743 (* end thide *)
adamc@50 744 Qed.
adamc@50 745
adamc@50 746 (** Induction on recursive predicates has similar pitfalls to those we encountered with inversion in the last section. *)
adamc@50 747
adamc@50 748 Theorem even_contra : forall n, even (S (n + n)) -> False.
adamc@55 749 (* begin thide *)
adamc@50 750 induction 1.
adamc@50 751 (** [[
adamc@50 752 n : nat
adamc@50 753 ============================
adamc@50 754 False
adam@322 755 ]]
adamc@50 756
adam@322 757 %\noindent \coqdockw{subgoal} 2 \coqdockw{is}:%#<tt>subgoal 2 is</tt>#
adam@322 758 [[
adamc@50 759 False
adamc@209 760
adamc@209 761 ]]
adamc@50 762
adam@280 763 We are already sunk trying to prove the first subgoal, since the argument to [even] was replaced by a fresh variable internally. This time, we find it easier to prove this theorem by way of a lemma. Instead of trusting [induction] to replace expressions with fresh variables, we do it ourselves, explicitly adding the appropriate equalities as new assumptions. *)
adamc@209 764
adamc@50 765 Abort.
adamc@50 766
adamc@50 767 Lemma even_contra' : forall n', even n' -> forall n, n' = S (n + n) -> False.
adamc@50 768 induction 1; crush.
adamc@50 769
adamc@54 770 (** At this point, it is useful to consider all cases of [n] and [n0] being zero or nonzero. Only one of these cases has any trickiness to it. *)
adamc@209 771
adamc@50 772 destruct n; destruct n0; crush.
adamc@50 773
adamc@50 774 (** [[
adamc@50 775 n : nat
adamc@50 776 H : even (S n)
adamc@50 777 IHeven : forall n0 : nat, S n = S (n0 + n0) -> False
adamc@50 778 n0 : nat
adamc@50 779 H0 : S n = n0 + S n0
adamc@50 780 ============================
adamc@50 781 False
adamc@209 782
adamc@209 783 ]]
adamc@50 784
adam@280 785 At this point it is useful to use a theorem from the standard library, which we also proved with a different name in the last chapter. We can search for a theorem that allows us to rewrite terms of the form [x + S y]. *)
adamc@209 786
adam@280 787 SearchRewrite (_ + S _).
adam@322 788
adam@401 789 (** [[
adam@280 790 plus_n_Sm : forall n m : nat, S (n + m) = n + S m
adam@302 791 ]]
adam@302 792 *)
adamc@50 793
adamc@50 794 rewrite <- plus_n_Sm in H0.
adamc@50 795
adam@322 796 (** The induction hypothesis lets us complete the proof, if we use a variant of [apply] that has a %\index{tactics!with}%[with] clause to give instantiations of quantified variables. *)
adamc@209 797
adamc@50 798 apply IHeven with n0; assumption.
adamc@50 799
adam@322 800 (** As usual, we can rewrite the proof to avoid referencing any locally generated names, which makes our proof script more readable and more robust to changes in the theorem statement. We use the notation [<-] to request a hint that does right-to-left rewriting, just like we can with the [rewrite] tactic. *)
adamc@209 801
adamc@209 802 Restart.
adam@322 803
adam@375 804 Hint Rewrite <- plus_n_Sm.
adamc@50 805
adamc@50 806 induction 1; crush;
adamc@50 807 match goal with
adamc@50 808 | [ H : S ?N = ?N0 + ?N0 |- _ ] => destruct N; destruct N0
adamc@50 809 end; crush; eauto.
adamc@50 810 Qed.
adamc@50 811
adam@322 812 (** We write the proof in a way that avoids the use of local variable or hypothesis names, using the %\index{tactics!match}%[match] tactic form to do pattern-matching on the goal. We use unification variables prefixed by question marks in the pattern, and we take advantage of the possibility to mention a unification variable twice in one pattern, to enforce equality between occurrences. The hint to rewrite with [plus_n_Sm] in a particular direction saves us from having to figure out the right place to apply that theorem, and we also take critical advantage of a new tactic, %\index{tactics!eauto}%[eauto].
adamc@50 813
adam@322 814 The [crush] tactic uses the tactic [intuition], which, when it runs out of tricks to try using only propositional logic, by default tries the tactic [auto], which we saw in an earlier example. The [auto] tactic attempts %\index{Prolog}%Prolog-style logic programming, searching through all proof trees up to a certain depth that are built only out of hints that have been registered with [Hint] commands. Compared to Prolog, [auto] places an important restriction: it never introduces new unification variables during search. That is, every time a rule is applied during proof search, all of its arguments must be deducible by studying the form of the goal. This restriction is relaxed for [eauto], at the cost of possibly exponentially greater running time. In this particular case, we know that [eauto] has only a small space of proofs to search, so it makes sense to run it. It is common in effectively automated Coq proofs to see a bag of standard tactics applied to pick off the %``%#"#easy#"#%''% subgoals, finishing with [eauto] to handle the tricky parts that can benefit from ad-hoc exhaustive search.
adamc@50 815
adamc@50 816 The original theorem now follows trivially from our lemma. *)
adamc@50 817
adamc@50 818 Theorem even_contra : forall n, even (S (n + n)) -> False.
adamc@52 819 intros; eapply even_contra'; eauto.
adamc@50 820 Qed.
adamc@52 821
adam@398 822 (** We use a variant %\index{tactics!apply}%[eapply] of [apply] which has the same relationship to [apply] as [eauto] has to [auto]. An invocation of [apply] only succeeds if all arguments to the rule being used can be determined from the form of the goal, whereas [eapply] will introduce unification variables for undetermined arguments. In this case, [eauto] is able to determine the right values for those unification variables, using (unsurprisingly) a variant of the classic algorithm for _unification_ %\cite{unification}%.
adamc@52 823
adamc@52 824 By considering an alternate attempt at proving the lemma, we can see another common pitfall of inductive proofs in Coq. Imagine that we had tried to prove [even_contra'] with all of the [forall] quantifiers moved to the front of the lemma statement. *)
adamc@52 825
adamc@52 826 Lemma even_contra'' : forall n' n, even n' -> n' = S (n + n) -> False.
adamc@52 827 induction 1; crush;
adamc@52 828 match goal with
adamc@52 829 | [ H : S ?N = ?N0 + ?N0 |- _ ] => destruct N; destruct N0
adamc@52 830 end; crush; eauto.
adamc@52 831
adamc@209 832 (** One subgoal remains:
adamc@52 833
adamc@209 834 [[
adamc@52 835 n : nat
adamc@52 836 H : even (S (n + n))
adamc@52 837 IHeven : S (n + n) = S (S (S (n + n))) -> False
adamc@52 838 ============================
adamc@52 839 False
adamc@209 840
adamc@209 841 ]]
adamc@52 842
adam@398 843 We are out of luck here. The inductive hypothesis is trivially true, since its assumption is false. In the version of this proof that succeeded, [IHeven] had an explicit quantification over [n]. This is because the quantification of [n] _appeared after the thing we are inducting on_ in the theorem statement. In general, quantified variables and hypotheses that appear before the induction object in the theorem statement stay fixed throughout the inductive proof. Variables and hypotheses that are quantified after the induction object may be varied explicitly in uses of inductive hypotheses. *)
adamc@52 844
adam@322 845 Abort.
adam@322 846
adam@322 847 (** Why should Coq implement [induction] this way? One answer is that it avoids burdening this basic tactic with additional heuristic smarts, but that is not the whole picture. Imagine that [induction] analyzed dependencies among variables and reordered quantifiers to preserve as much freedom as possible in later uses of inductive hypotheses. This could make the inductive hypotheses more complex, which could in turn cause particular automation machinery to fail when it would have succeeded before. In general, we want to avoid quantifiers in our proofs whenever we can, and that goal is furthered by the refactoring that the [induction] tactic forces us to do. *)
adamc@55 848 (* end thide *)
adamc@209 849
adam@322 850
adamc@51 851
adamc@52 852
adamc@52 853 (* begin hide *)
adamc@52 854 (* In-class exercises *)
adamc@52 855
adam@292 856 (* EX: Define a type [prop] of simple boolean formulas made up only of truth, falsehood, binary conjunction, and binary disjunction. Define an inductive predicate [holds] that captures when [prop]s are valid, and define a predicate [falseFree] that captures when a [prop] does not contain the %``%#"#false#"#%''% formula. Prove that every false-free [prop] is valid. *)
adamc@52 857
adamc@52 858 (* begin thide *)
adamc@52 859 Inductive prop : Set :=
adamc@52 860 | Tru : prop
adamc@52 861 | Fals : prop
adamc@52 862 | And : prop -> prop -> prop
adamc@52 863 | Or : prop -> prop -> prop.
adamc@52 864
adamc@52 865 Inductive holds : prop -> Prop :=
adamc@52 866 | HTru : holds Tru
adamc@52 867 | HAnd : forall p1 p2, holds p1 -> holds p2 -> holds (And p1 p2)
adamc@52 868 | HOr1 : forall p1 p2, holds p1 -> holds (Or p1 p2)
adamc@52 869 | HOr2 : forall p1 p2, holds p2 -> holds (Or p1 p2).
adamc@52 870
adamc@52 871 Inductive falseFree : prop -> Prop :=
adamc@52 872 | FFTru : falseFree Tru
adamc@52 873 | FFAnd : forall p1 p2, falseFree p1 -> falseFree p2 -> falseFree (And p1 p2)
adamc@52 874 | FFNot : forall p1 p2, falseFree p1 -> falseFree p2 -> falseFree (Or p1 p2).
adamc@52 875
adamc@52 876 Hint Constructors holds.
adamc@52 877
adamc@52 878 Theorem falseFree_holds : forall p, falseFree p -> holds p.
adamc@52 879 induction 1; crush.
adamc@52 880 Qed.
adamc@52 881 (* end thide *)
adamc@52 882
adamc@52 883
adamc@52 884 (* EX: Define an inductive type [prop'] that is the same as [prop] but omits the possibility for falsehood. Define a proposition [holds'] for [prop'] that is analogous to [holds]. Define a function [propify] for translating [prop']s to [prop]s. Prove that, for any [prop'] [p], if [propify p] is valid, then so is [p]. *)
adamc@52 885
adamc@52 886 (* begin thide *)
adamc@52 887 Inductive prop' : Set :=
adamc@52 888 | Tru' : prop'
adamc@52 889 | And' : prop' -> prop' -> prop'
adamc@52 890 | Or' : prop' -> prop' -> prop'.
adamc@52 891
adamc@52 892 Inductive holds' : prop' -> Prop :=
adamc@52 893 | HTru' : holds' Tru'
adamc@52 894 | HAnd' : forall p1 p2, holds' p1 -> holds' p2 -> holds' (And' p1 p2)
adamc@52 895 | HOr1' : forall p1 p2, holds' p1 -> holds' (Or' p1 p2)
adamc@52 896 | HOr2' : forall p1 p2, holds' p2 -> holds' (Or' p1 p2).
adamc@52 897
adamc@52 898 Fixpoint propify (p : prop') : prop :=
adamc@52 899 match p with
adamc@52 900 | Tru' => Tru
adamc@52 901 | And' p1 p2 => And (propify p1) (propify p2)
adamc@52 902 | Or' p1 p2 => Or (propify p1) (propify p2)
adamc@52 903 end.
adamc@52 904
adamc@52 905 Hint Constructors holds'.
adamc@52 906
adamc@52 907 Lemma propify_holds' : forall p', holds p' -> forall p, p' = propify p -> holds' p.
adamc@52 908 induction 1; crush; destruct p; crush.
adamc@52 909 Qed.
adamc@52 910
adamc@52 911 Theorem propify_holds : forall p, holds (propify p) -> holds' p.
adamc@52 912 intros; eapply propify_holds'; eauto.
adamc@52 913 Qed.
adamc@52 914 (* end thide *)
adamc@52 915
adamc@52 916 (* end hide *)